They serve as examples for the tribal hima cooperatives and encourage the spread of new techniques developed by agricultural experts. These cooperatives also work in coordination with international and national organizations and store fodder to be used during periods when supplemental feeds are required. The hima cooperatives of Syria, acceptable to both the Bedouin and the nation-state, are a unique amalgam of traditional Bedouin practice and government policy.
Both the Bedouin and the Syrian government appear to be dedicated to their success. The government holds annual meetings to hear the grievances and suggestions of cooperative leaders and attempts to address the issues raised. The government, however, remains concerned about the revival of tribalism. In the s tribes have strengthened social and political ties within the cooperative organization.
Old rivalries have led to raids on one another's hima lands. Nonetheless, the Syrian program is the most successful government Bedouin policy in the Middle East.
The situation in Jordan is different from that in Syria. The Jordanian government has encouraged private land ownership, and most Jordanian Bedouin tribes are at least partially settled. Only the tribes driven from the Negev by Israel in recent years remain totally dependent on pastoralism. Bedouin have been encouraged to cultivate in marginal areas, i. Agriculture has been one of the major causes of erosion and desertification in Jordan. The desert has been open to free and unregulated grazing.
Tribes from Jordan, Syria, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia use the northern and eastern regions for grazing, and overgrazing has adversely affected the desert's productivity. Despite these problems, the Ministry of Agriculture remains determined to organize farming cooperatives for the Bedouin.
The first Bedouin cooperative in Jordan was established in at al-Jafr - none of the tribes in the area joined; other cooperatives have been established elsewhere in Bedouin regions. Few tribesmen are attracted to any of these cooperatives because of the five-year apprenticeship imposed on all new members.
Most tribes still have some control over their lands, although their rights are not officially recognized by the national government. Tribes with powerful leaders are able to protect their tribal lands from incursions by other Bedouin and the government.
In the cAmmarin and Layathna tribes fought a gunbattle over the ownership of a well, and in the Bani Hasan successfully challenged the Jordanian government's right to develop lands near Zarqa'. Recently, the Jordanian government has become interested in implementing Bedouin hima cooperatives based on the Syrian model. In four hima cooperatives were established by the Jordan Cooperatives Organization, two near Madaba and two near Macan.
The hima scheme has been in the planning since and is funded by a loan from the United Nations World Health and Food and Agricultural Organizations. The project has a good chance of success should the Jordanian government take an active interest in it. An effective base for an expanded hima cooperative also exists at Azraq near the Saudi border, but for the moment the government does not seem to be interested in the project.
Hima cooperatives such as those in Syria have brought a new impetus to pastoralism in the region. Bedouin, rather than being seen as anachronisms of a past era, are a vital part of the modern Middle East. They make productive use of the vast arid steppe and desert regions, areas that are not otherwise used for economic purposes. Over eighty percent of Jordan and over fifty percent of Syria receive less than the millimeters of annual rainfall required for dry land crops such as wheat and barley.
Farming is impractical in these areas which do, however, provide pasture for the Bedouins' flocks and herds. The hima system regulates the use of the desert and protects it from problems of desertification and overgrazing. Hima-based cooperatives demonstrate that nation-states and Bedouin tribes are capable of successfully working together for a mutually beneficial, common purpose.
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Experts estimate that hundreds of thousands of troops would be needed to mount search operations — and even more to put the desert under permanent control. Once they melt into the desert, without an army of tens of thousands of supporters from dozens of countries, IS jihadis will resort to guerrilla-style attacks: scattered hit-and-run attacks and suicide bombings.
Some of those plans are already on display. In the eastern Syrian town of Mayadeen, a former IS stronghold, the militants pulled back and disappeared into the desert after only a few days of battle with Syrian government forces earlier this month. The top U. That fighting has already diverted resources from the war on IS, the top U. Paul Funk, told The Associated Press last week. Iraqi troops, Shiite militiamen and Kurdish forces have driven IS from nearly all of Iraq, but if they turn on one another, that could give the extremists an opening to regroup.
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